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Climate Change Communication Content Analysis of a CBC Article

Leave a Comment / Academic Writing, CALS 502 / Deanna

A CBC article was selected to analyze its use of climate change communication evidence-based techniques. Communicating about climate change has been a complex enterprise for climate scientists as simply providing increasingly alarming information has not generated sufficient action to mitigate the damage done. What climate change communication research has found is there are evidence-based techniques that work well to engage an audience and others that do not. Analyzing the selected article for the evidence-based techniques will demonstrate what worked well, what did not and why. The article chosen for analysis is “What Canadians need to know about how climate change is affecting their health” (Bernstien, 2021). It is part of an initiative by CBC News called “Our Changing Planet.” This initiative intends to increase climate change coverage across the many segments of the corporation’s news and media resources, recognizing that climate change is more than an environmental story. The CBC pledges a “sustained journalistic focus and attention (climate change) deserve(s) at a time most experts describe as an inflection point for the planet” (Fenlon, 2021). This paper will determine if the focus CBC is giving climate change is also effective in engaging their audience.

To do the analysis, it is helpful to understand the target audience for the article. As a public broadcaster, the CBC is mandated by the 1991 Broadcast Act to provide programming at a national and regional level and be accessible to all Canadians (Branch, 2020). Based on the CBC’s annual report for 2020-2021, during a typical month, 78% of Canadians accessed one of CBC’s services (CBC/Radio Canada, 2021). Additionally, according to a 2018 Canadian Viewing Profiles report on CBC audiences, the demographics for all viewing types range from an average age of 37 for those that are predominately online to 61 years old for those who predominantly view television (Media Technology Monitor, 2018). Therefore, climate change articles from the national CBC News department need to have a broad appeal and engage the public across all audience viewpoints as defined by the “Global Warming’s Six America’s” (see Table 1.0 below), where views range from alarmed to dismissive about climate change (Maibach et al., 2011). Further, because of the commitment to the “Our Changing Planet” initiative, the article should demonstrate evidence-based climate change communication techniques to ensure the message engages the public and encourages dialogue. Considering the intended audience and the need for broad appeal, climate change communication research points to a few techniques demonstrated in this article and some that could have been used for better effect.

Table 1.0

“Global Warming’s Six America’s” Audience Type

Global Warming’s Six America’s	Alarmed	Concerned	Cautious	Disengaged	Doubtful	Dismissive
Description of belief in Global Warming	Highest belief, concern, and motivation	Highest belief, concern, and motivation		Many are members of vulnerable communities.	Lowest belief, motivation, or concern	Lowest belief, motivation, or concern
What audience is interested in knowing	What can be done to reduce global warming?	What can be done to reduce global warming?	What harm will global warming cause?	What harm will global warming cause?	Want proof that global warming is occurring.	Want proof that global warming is occurring.

(Maibach et al., 2011, p.16-17)

This article demonstrates several evidence-based climate change communication techniques, including highlighting the scientific consensus. It claims to be based on the 2021 Lancet Countdown, an annual report on health and climate change and is the work “of 93 authors, including climate scientists, economists, public health experts and political scientists” (Bernstien, 2021, p. 2). Highlighting the scientific consensus in developing the Lancet report demonstrates to readers that there is a high level of agreement regarding the data. Surveys have shown that people are unaware of how many scientists agree with the data on climate change and that “highlighting consensus can be an effective means to counter misinformation and raise public awareness” (Lewandowsky, 2021, p. 1).

Another evidence-based climate change communication technique in the article is making it local. Most people are unaware of how climate change impacts them locally and think it is a serious problem but believe it is affecting other people in other places or people in the future (Maibach et al., 2011 & Bennett et al., 2021). As the Lancet Countdown is a technical report for the entire world, the article focuses on information specific to Canada to help Canadians understand local impacts and how they will be affected. The author used the example of the 2021 heat dome in British Columbia to discuss the effects of extreme heat, the 2021 impact of forest fire on Lytton, B.C. and the Lytton First Nations and the 2021 drought impact on farmers in Alberta and Saskatchewan. This lets readers understand that the impacts are already occurring in many places simultaneously within Canada.

The article’s title implies it will tell Canadians how climate change affects their health and therefore is an opportunity to frame climate change as a health issue. Given that health impacts everyone, the article should have a broad appeal and catch the attention of more Canadians than those specifically interested in environmental issues (Maibach et al., 2011). Discussing the health harms that occur from not acting on climate change and the health benefits realized from acting helps to answer the question of how climate change affects the individual (Maibach et al., 2011). Climate change is a complex issue, and it is difficult for people to understand what effects it will have on them. Helping people understand the health impacts the changing environment will have on them connects them to the more complex issue of climate change and that solutions to climate change can benefit their health (Maibach et al., 2011). Although some of the health impacts of extreme heat were described in the article, it did not provide any actions for the reader to take to reduce their risk and likely left them feeling overwhelmed and fearful.

Evidence shows that providing a fearful message and describing the challenge does not lead people to support climate action. They need the connections made to the solutions and the benefits from implementing solutions to remain engaged (Bennett et al., 2021). To keep audiences engaged and help them assimilate the fearful messaging about climate change impacts, Bennett et al. (2021) recommend using a message triangle “to deliver a story that sticks” (p. 2). A message triangle includes three elements; defining the challenge in clear, simple language, presenting the pathway or actions that can be taken to mitigate and adapt to the challenge, and describing the benefits derived from acting. Interestingly the article did not provide any information on pathways to alleviate the problem or the benefits that could be derived from implementing the pathways.

The fearful messages within the article include worsening health impacts, Canada’s failure to develop sufficient mitigation strategies, details of the 2021 deadly heat wave in B.C., impacts from wildfires on First Nations and frequent drought hurting farmers. These messages are likely to elicit fearful emotion in the audience, who consequently may react by rejecting or disengaging from the subject (Hine et al., 2016). Howarth et al. (2020) argue “frightening messages need be to be made personal and manageable and need to present clear solutions to remove the threat” (p. 322). Unfortunately, as noted above, solutions were not provided, not even links to stories about pathways and benefits, which could have provided the reader with some hope. To be fair, the Lancet report does not offer much in the way of pathways or benefits either. However, the Lancet Countdown Policy Brief for Canada does quote the IPCC report that “underscores every fraction of a degree of warming avoided provides critical protection”(Hackett et al., 2021, p. 2). It also promotes the co-benefits of increasing and preserving green space (Hackett et al., 2021). These points were not used in the article.

As noted previously, the Lancet Countdown report is a technical document and is not easily understood. Therefore, to make the story more relatable to the audience, the author of the CBC article used narrative and visual images. The narrative used in the article tells how the impacts of drought and diminishing crop yields affect Prairie farmers. The story is relayed by the director of climate crisis policy and action at the National Farmers Union. Using a local expert’s narrative brings credibility to the claims made by the science (Howarth et al., 2020). Also, “narratives help increase (the) connection between people and give meaning to certain issues, and they enable audiences to make sense of complex issues” (Howarth et al., 2020, p. 323). This was the most relatable part of the article due to the story being told from a local stakeholder’s perspective and the image of the farmer in his fields over two years.

Interestingly, although using images is an evidence-based climate change communication technique, research finds they must be used with care. For example, the farmer in his field, one year lush and green and the following year dry and sparse, does not demonstrate a long-term climate trend, as the Prairies have a history of these types of weather patterns, so it could be misleading (Lewandowsky, 2021). However, researchers also note the “depiction of credible, authentic human subjects have been found to evoke greater concern and motivation to act” (Wang et al., 2018, p. 6). Adding information in the caption about the long-term drought trend expected in the region could help to avoid confusion for those that only look at images and do not read the article. Another compelling image depicts extreme heat impacts by showing a man in shorts packing large water bottles as he walks through a cooling sprinkler. This picture evokes the seriousness of the climate impact on a real person straining to cope with the extreme situation. Such images connect with the reader emotionally and can result in readers feeling “greater concern and motivation to act” (Wang et al., 2018, p. 6).

There are also images in the article that climate communication researchers find are less effective such as a photo of the devastation after the Lytton fire and a picture of climate activist Greta Thunberg. Researchers have found that images of protesters or celebrities do not effectively engage audiences. They can be seen as distant or removed from the audience’s experience and may only resonate with other activists (Wang et al., 2018). The image of Greta may have been included to appeal to younger followers who also need to be engaged. Images of devastation, such as the Lytton, B.C. fire picture, have similar effects as fearful messages and must be accompanied by mitigating actions or solutions (Wang et al., 2018). Researchers have found that “images of distant climate impacts produced flatter emotional responses among those on the political right than the left, whereas solutions images produced positive emotions for both sides” (Wang et al., 2018, p. 8). The CBC article did not provide any solutions images or stories; therefore, the images would be considered ineffective based on climate change communication research. In contrast, the two images of people and the narrative about the drought are examples of effectively using evidence-based climate change communication techniques to deliver the message.

The CBC article was supposed to tell readers how climate change affects Canadian health but only talked about the health impacts of extreme heat and ended up straying from a health focus to talking about the growth of emissions, the impact of wildfire on Indigenous people, and the frequency of drought in the Prairies. The result is a fearful message without any solutions provided or mention of benefits from adopting solutions. Researchers have found that using fear to communicate about climate change is ineffective. As discussed above, “presenting frightening content about threats like climate change elicits fear control processing which leads audiences to disengage or reject threatening messages in an attempt to manage fears” (Hine et al., 2016). Researchers have found that providing applicable and relatable advice about managing the threat “leads people to seek out additional information and develop strategies to reduce or eliminate the threat”(Hine et al., 2016). Hopefully, all climate change communication aims to motivate people to take action to reduce the threat.

Had the article stayed with the intended premise stated in the title and focused on what Canadians need to know about health, there might have been an opportunity to write about some of the climate mitigation solutions and associated health benefits. What the article did do, was focus on many fearful impacts and issues related to climate change. This misses the opportunity to let the readers know what they need to do to prevent their demise or reduce the mental health impacts, such as increasing green space to reduce the heat island effect. This is a solution mentioned in the Canadian policy document supporting the Lancet Countdown report (Hackett et al., 2021). Increasing green space can positively impact people’s mental health, and when a solution is offered that also has benefits, it can lead to more engagement on the topic (Maibach et al., 2011). What the article did well from a climate change communication perspective was highlighting the scientific consensus (Lewandowsky, 2021), localizing the issues (Maibach et al., 2011), and using narrative, albeit the narrative did not talk about health (Howarth et al., 2020). Following a framework such as a message triangle (i.e., challenges, solutions, benefits) has research to support its effectiveness so that climate change communication can motivate the audience (Bennett et al., 2021). In the future, the CBC “Our Changing Planet” initiative, the Lancet Countdown Report and the Canadian Policy report derived from it must consider evidence-based climate change communication to create impactful messages that Canadians will heed.

References

Bennett, A., Hatch, C.,& Pike, C. (2021). Climate Messaging that Works, Climate Narrative Initiative, Climate Access. https://climateaccess.org/sites/default/files/Climate%20Messaging%20that%20Works%20-%20Talking%20Energy%20Transition%20and%20Climate%20Change%20in%20Canada.pdf

Bernstien, J. (2021, October 20). What Canadians need to know about how climate change is affecting their health. Science, CBC News. https://www.cbc.ca/news/science/climate-change-health-impacts-lancet-report-2021-1.6217768

Branch, L. S. (2020, July 1). Canada Broadcasting Act. Justice Department, Government of Canada. https://laws.justice.gc.ca/eng/acts/B-9.01/

CBC/Radio Canada. (2021). Annual Report. CBC/Radio Canada https://cbc.radio-canada.ca/en/impact-and-accountability/finances/annual-reports/ar-2020-2021/measuring-our-performance/our-performance-mandate-vision

CBC/Radio Canada (n.d.). Mandate. CBC/Radio Canada. Retrieved July 3, 2022, from https://cbc.radio-canada.ca/en/vision/mandate

Fenlon, B. (2021, October 18). The planet is changing. So will our journalism. Editor’s Blog. CBC News. https://www.cbc.ca/news/science/climate-change-health-impacts-lancet-report-2021-1.6217768

Hackett, F., Petrin-Desrosiers, C., McGregor, D., Buse, C., Howard, C., Chisholm, A., & Carter, A. (2021). Canada 2021—Lancet Countdown Policy Brief.pdf. (n.d.). Retrieved July 4, 2022, from https://www.dropbox.com/s/kz2yinmxsagzcc2/Canada%202021%20-%20Lancet%20Countdown%20Policy%20Brief.pdf?dl=0

Hine, D. W., Phillips, W. J., Cooksey, R., Reser, J. P., Nunn, P., Marks, A. D. G., Loi, N. M., & Watt, S. E. (2016). Preaching to different choirs: How to motivate dismissive, uncommitted, and alarmed audiences to adapt to climate change? Global Environmental Change, 36, 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2015.11.002

Howarth, C., Parsons, L., & Thew, H. (2020). Effectively Communicating Climate Science beyond Academia: Harnessing the Heterogeneity of Climate Knowledge. One Earth 2(4), 320-324. https:/doi.org/10.1016/j.oneear.2020.04.01

Lewandowsky, S. (2021). Climate Change Disinformation and How to Combat It. Annual Review of Public Health, 42(1), 1–21. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-publhealth-090419-102409

Maibach, E., Matthew, N.,& Weather, M., (2011) Conveying the Human Implications of Climate Change – A Climate Change Communication Primer for Public Health Professionals. Fairfax, VA: George Mason University Center for Climate Change Communication.

Media Technology Monitor. (2018). Canadian Viewing Profiles, MTM Media Technology Monitor. appendix-c-mtm-canadian-viewing-profiles.pdf (radio-canada.ca)

Romanello, M., McGushin, A., Di Napoli, C., Drummond, P., Hughes, N., Jamart, L., Kennard, H., Lampard, P., Solano Rodriguez, B., Arnell, N., Ayeb-Karlsson, S., Belesova, K., Cai, W., Campbell-Lendrum, D., Capstick, S., Chambers, J., Chu, L., Ciampi, L., Dalin, C., … Hamilton, I. (2021). The 2021 report of the Lancet Countdown on health and climate change: Code red for a healthy future. The Lancet, 398(10311), 1619–1662. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(21)01787-6

Wang, S., Corner, A., Chapman, D., & Markowitz, E. (2018). Public engagement with climate imagery in a changing digital landscape. WIREs Climate Change, 9(2), e509. https://doi.org/10.1002/wcc.509

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Critical Reflection on Climate Communication

Leave a Comment / Academic Writing, CALS 501, CALS 502 / Deanna

Climate change is a complex, pervasive and unprecedented challenge facing all living beings and ecosystems (IPCC, 2022). During MACAL 502 Climate Communications course, I have found that communicating about climate change is as challenging as achieving emissions reduction targets and attaining the necessary adaptation of mindsets, society, and infrastructure. At the very least, I have learnt that providing alarming scientific facts about future events will not spur sufficient action and can cause psychological paralysis, distancing, indifference, or apathy. In addition, and worse, there has been a concentrated, well-funded effort to oppose the science and emissions reduction efforts by those who fear that emissions reduction will impede the growth of their industry (Lewandowsky, 2021; Treen, 2020). If this is not enough of a challenge, different audiences react differently to the information provided and how it is communicated (Hine, 2016). As Howarth et al. (2020) point out, “The choices people make will be guided by government regulations, social practices, and individual decisions, all of which will be shaped by the availability of information and how it is communicated”(p. 320). Fortunately, the science of climate change communications has been developed in a relatively short time and offers insights into what has worked and what might work going forward (Moser, 2016). I am grateful to have been introduced to this body of work that can help me be more effective in my communications. Now, as I write or talk about climate change, I am thinking about the emotions fearful messages create in myself and others, as well as the worldviews and values of the audience, and looking for optimal ways to deliver a message that can effectively motivate positive action.

As I struggle to maintain my sense of hope with the slowness and tepidness of government actions, I have learnt that the perceived lack of action and the complexity of the issue can impact individuals’ willingness (or motivation) to act and increase fear, anxiety, and apathy (Moser, 2016; O’Neill & Nicholson-Cole, 2009). This was brought home to me when I mentioned climate change in a recent conversation with my daughter. She asked why I always talk about climate change, a topic she finds “so depressing”. As a young person, she is not alone in this feeling. A Lancet Medical Journal survey of 10,000 youth on climate anxiety found that 75% think the future is frightening, and 50% felt several negative emotions, including powerlessness and hopelessness (Hickman et al., 2021). In their discussion of the failure of government and those in power to act, the authors are scathing, claiming that “[s]ubjecting young people to climate anxiety and moral injury can be regarded as cruel, inhuman, degrading or even torturous” (Hickman et al., 2021, p. 9). This is also important to consider when delivering climate news. Climate communications researchers found that framing climate change sensationally when communicating with students increased perceptions of risk compared to those reading neutral information (Schuldt et al., 2018). Sensational messages also elicited “stronger negative emotions toward climate change” (Schuldt et al., 2018, p.61). As noted, fearful messages can cause psychological distancing; however, this can be minimized by including a pathway or solution for the audience to deal with the threat (Howarth et al., 2020). I also need to recognize my reaction to fearful or sensational messages as well as the reaction of others so that I can be empathic to the audience and reframe the message to include a pathway forward whenever possible.

Paths forwards can include encouraging audiences to be aware of their mindset. Mary AnnaÏse Heglar’s blog post, Home is Always Worth It (2019), captures her feelings of shock and hopelessness when confronted with bleak and dire proclamations for the future. However, she quite pragmatically points out that we have “no time for nihilism” and that “we can recognize that hopelessness does not mean helplessness”(Heglar, 2019). Similarly, Hannah Richie, in her article Stop Telling Kids They’ll Die From Climate Change notes that she needed a change in mindset (Richie, 2021). She reframes her thinking by acknowledging that the world is slowly moving to lower carbon options and that “we need a new message for climate change … that drives action through optimism” (Richie, 2021). Although I recognize the necessity to acknowledge the feelings of hopelessness, I want to find ways to motivate climate action. To this end, I have looked for ways to include solutions, pathways, and benefits from implementing the solutions in my communications. Thinking about the benefit triangle (Figure 1) has been practical and helpful in achieving this.

Figure 1

Benefit Triangle

Note. The Benefit Triangle is a helpful tool. From: (Bennett, 2021, p. 2).

In Climate Messaging that Works, Bennett et al. (2021) found that when communicating about a challenge, it is effective to connect solutions and benefits with the challenge being communicated. Hence the Benefit Triangle. The authors note that the benefit triangle “allows you to keep things simple amidst all the noise — to connect the dots between what people care about and what can be done” (Bennett et al., 2021, p. 2). The next time the topic of climate change came up between my daughter and me, it was in a conversation about flooding from a local river. I mentioned the municipality’s commitment to restoring the riverbanks as a means of adaptation. This nature-based solution allows nature to provide the infrastructure and many other benefits for the environment instead of a single-purpose retaining wall. This time the message was received with interest. She could see the benefit of this pathway as it improved an essential and valued watershed.

Bennett et al. advise climate communicators to “[h]one in on the benefits of climate action most relevant to audiences by talking about what will improve for their lives … or other things they care about”(p. 3). Taking this to heart, I recently developed the blog post, Nanaimo citizen’s climate action story gallery, which showcased friends and family taking positive climate action measures. The post also incorporated images and audio and was written to assist those with visual impairments and cognitive challenges. Actions featured in the blog ranged from starting a seed library to cycling for transportation to installing heat pumps and solar systems. While the actions reflect the individuals’ interests, ages, and access to capital, each action contributes to emissions reduction, health and well-being and community building. Using narrative was a new and previously untried approach for me. I found that doing the research and writing was a positive personal experience and, to my surprise, gave me hope.

MACAL 502 included readings about Indigenous Knowledge Keepers, which has stretched my thinking, world view and understanding in new and improved ways. Understanding or at least having an inkling of Indigenous knowledge offers an insightful approach to climate change communications and validates my innate connection to nature. Through this learning, I have come to understand that climate change is a symptom of colonialism and capitalism that has separated humans from being connected to nature (Kimmerer, 2013; Whyte, 2017). In writing about the Indigenous Knowledge Keepers who attended the Onjisay Aki International Climate Summit, Cameron et al. (2021) share the Elders’ insights regarding climate change. The Elders at the summit suggested that solving greenhouse gas emissions with technical fixes will not work without going deeper and finding the underlying cause of the problem(Cameron et al., 2021). Understanding the underlying causes resonates with me as a way to understand why those in power and many others are threatened and dismissive of climate action.

The Elders identified the core of the problem as self-centred human values such as greed, arrogance, and domination, which lead to destructive behaviours and actions such as extraction and exploitation (Cameron et al., 2021). Ultimately these actions result in climate change, biodiversity loss and other impacts on the ecosystem. Although these consequences are devastating, the Knowledge Keepers generously offer a way forward that includes “Indigenous peoples reclaim[ing] positions of leadership to help guide humanity in returning to a way of life in balance with the Earth’s limit and laws”( p. 8). We can look at the root cause of climate change as “a deeply human story about the relationality between humans and the planet” (p. 16). As Robin Kimmerer (2013) notes, “we are deluged by information regarding our destruction of the world and hear almost nothing about how to nurture it” (p. 327). Therefore, as a white settler who is sometimes overwhelmed by the grief and magnitude of the climate change message, I can remind myself of the necessity to tell stories with nurturing in mind and look for opportunities to communicate about reconciliation, reconnection with nature and living in reciprocity with the natural environment.

I am grateful for having had the opportunity to delve into the research and science of climate change communications. Studying climate change communications may be a science but applying it is an art. I say this because to be effective I need to understand people’s emotional responses, values and mindsets and appeal to them to consider other ways of seeing or being in the world. I may have intuitively understood some of this in the past, but now I can look to climate change communications science for tools and research to help me be effective. Going forward, I will use the benefit triangle, increase my narrative and storytelling skills, promote a deeper connection to nature and look to the wisdom of the Indigenous peoples. In addition, my future writings will include using message frames, careful use of imagery and icons and maybe other forms of media beyond the blog.

Reference

Cameron, L., Courchene, D., Ijaz, S., & Mauro, I. (2021). ‘A change of heart’: Indigenous perspectives from the Onjisay Aki Summit on climate change. Climatic Change, 164(3), 43. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-021-03000-8

Heglar, M. A. (2019, September 17). Home is Always Worth It. Medium. https://medium.com/@maryheglar/home-is-always-worth-it-d2821634dcd9

Hickman, C., Marks, E., Pihkala, P., Clayton, S., Lewandowski, R. E., Mayall, E. E., Wray, B., Mellor, C., & van Susteren, L. (2021). Climate anxiety in children and young people and their beliefs about government responses to climate change: A global survey. The Lancet Planetary Health, 5(12), e863–e873. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2542-5196(21)00278-3

Hine, D. W., Phillips, W. J., Cooksey, R., Reser, J. P., Nunn, P., Marks, A. D. G., Loi, N. M., & Watt, S. E. (2016). Preaching to different choirs: How to motivate dismissive, uncommitted, and alarmed audiences to adapt to climate change? Global Environmental Change, pp. 36, 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2015.11.002

IPCC, (2022). Summary for Policymakers [H.-O. Pörtner, D.C. Roberts, E.S. Poloczanska, K. Mintenbeck, M. Tignor, A. Alegría, M. Craig, S. Langsdorf, S. Löschke, V. Möller, A. Okem (eds.)]. In: Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [H.-O. Pörtner, D.C. Roberts, M. Tignor, E.S. Poloczanska, K. Mintenbeck, A. Alegría, M. Craig, S. Langsdorf, S. Löschke, V. Möller, A. Okem, B. Rama (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, USA, pp. 3–33, doi:10.1017/9781009325844.001.

Kimmerer, R.W. (2013). Braiding Sweetgrass. Milkweed Editions. https://milkweed.org/book/braiding-sweetgrass

Lewandowsky, S. (2021). Climate Change Disinformation and How to Combat It. Annual Review of Public Health, 42(1), 1–21. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-publhealth-090419-102409

Moser, S. C. (2016). Reflections on climate change communication research and practice in the second decade of the 21st century: What more is there to say? WIREs Climate Change, 7(3), 345–369. https://doi.org/10.1002/wcc.403

Ritchie, H. (n.d.). Stop Telling Kids They’ll Die From Climate Change. Wired. Retrieved September 19, 2022, from https://www.wired.com/story/stop-telling-kids-theyll-die-from-climate-change/

Schuldt, J.P., Krasny, M.E., & Armstrong, A.K. (2018). Communicating Climate Change: A Guide for Educators. Ithaca: Cornell University Press., http://doi.org/10.1353/book.68536.

Treen, K. M. d’I., Williams, H. T. P., & O’Neill, S. J. (2020). Online misinformation about climate change. WIREs Climate Change, 11(5), e665. https://doi.org/10.1002/wcc.665

Whyte, K. (2017). Indigenous Climate Change Studies: Indigenizing Futures, Decolonizing the Anthropocene. English Language Notes, 55(1–2), pp. 153–162. https://doi.org/10.1215/00138282-55.1-2.153

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The interconnected structure of a wooden rail trestle. This is meant to represent the inter-relationships required for mainstreaming.

Mainstreaming a Climate Action Leadership Competency

2 Comments / Academic Writing, CALS 501 / Deanna

Introduction

Mainstreaming is one of the core competencies of a climate action leader, as identified in the Climate Adaptation Competency Framework within the domain of “Climate Adaptation Planning & Implementation” (Cox et al., 2021). It is a strategy used to integrate climate action within an organization or across a sector with the intention to include climate action in “all objectives and decisions across programs, projects, operations, policies, procedures, financing and training” (Cox et al., 2021). To develop a further understanding of mainstreaming, the following three paragraphs summarize research papers on the topic. The papers were selected as they provided variety in research methodology and date of publication. The first paper is a meta-analysis of peer-reviewed research on mainstreaming, thereby giving a broad perspective and providing an analytical framework that could be used for future research. The second paper is a case study of five municipalities in Norway to understand what drives mainstreaming. This paper was one of the papers cited in the meta-analysis and provided foundational information to that work. The final and third paper is also a case study of a municipality in Ireland just published this year differing from the other case studies in that the lead author worked for the municipality. It provides a recent example of mainstreaming in action. The primary theme coming from all three papers was the need for a strong mandate and adequate resources to support mainstreaming.

Article 1 – Summary of Mainstreaming climate adaptation: taking stock of “what works” from empirical research worldwide

In the article Mainstreaming climate adaptation: taking stock about “what works” from empirical research worldwide Runhaar et al. (2017) assess existing peer-reviewed literature to identify: what mainstreaming has achieved and how; what the differences are “between policy sectors and countries” (p.1202); and what the critical factors are that makes mainstreaming effective. Runhaar et al. found that climate adaptation mainstreaming has different meanings to different authors. Therefore, their research used four of the five mainstreaming strategies identified by Wamsler and Pauleit (2016, as cited in Runhaar et al., 2017): managerial mainstreaming, intra – and inter-organizational mainstreaming, regulatory mainstreaming, and directed mainstreaming. Similarly, the authors could not find agreement in the literature on what mainstreaming should achieve or how it is measured, so they looked at policy outputs and outcomes to assess effectiveness (cf. Persson 2007; Jordan and Lenschow 2008, as cited in Runhaar et al., 2017). Their analytical framework also includes policy output effectiveness to determine how well the adaptation measures worked. To evaluate policy output effectiveness, Runhaar et al. looked at the drivers and the barriers identified in previous studies and came up with six categories for their evaluation.

This paper provides insights relevant to the mainstreaming competency that is part of the Climate Adaptation Competency Framework developed by Cox et al. (2021). It identifies what has worked and what has failed and develops a framework to assess adaptation mainstreaming. In terms of what works, their results show the main drivers are political will backed up with financial incentives, external cooperation, work of a policy entrepreneur, and focusing events (though only for a short duration after the event). Barriers are many, with the dominant ones affecting implementation being organizational and managerial structures that impede collaboration and lack climate adaptation mainstreaming as a clear priority or mandate. In the literature reviewed, the authors found that without adequate support from the top, mainstreaming becomes a voluntary activity with numerous implementation barriers. To achieve climate change adaptation implementation, the researchers identify the need for strict requirements or mandates that support mainstreaming. This will provide the impetus for all governments and organizations to climate adapt their sectors. Not surprisingly, there needs to be sufficient funding and staff resources to achieve mainstreaming effectively.

Article 2 – Summary of Mainstreaming climate change adaptation at the local level

Mainstreaming climate change adaptation at the local level is an examination of mainstreaming in five municipalities in Norway. Researchers, Rauken et al. (2015) seek to determine what drives mainstreaming and provide an explanation of why different approaches are used. Additionally, as the five municipalities have similar organization and management traits to other western communities, the study may provide a more comprehensive understanding of adaptation mainstreaming challenges in these settings. Conducting the examination included a literature review focused on the integration of policy and the origins of mainstreaming to provide the framework for evaluation. Rauken et al. determined they would use three aspects of mainstreaming to assess the various approaches the municipalities used or did not use. The aspects are comprehensiveness, aggregation, and consistency. A demonstration of comprehensiveness occurs when there is an awareness of the need to adapt, when strategic decisions reflect concern about climate change adaptation, and when climate change adaptation is integrated into related policy fields. Aggregation is demonstrated when climate change adaptation is assessed from an overall perspective rather than from a single sector perspective through a joint approach. Lastly, consistency is demonstrated when climate change adaptation has a connection to other policies and conflicting policy issues are addressed across policy fields (Rauken et al., 2015). Rauken et al. also argue that mainstreaming requires both vertical and horizontal approaches to achieve all three aspects of mainstreaming.

Rauken et al. (2015) findings provide a view into mainstreaming in action and a framework for assessing an organization’s use of mainstreaming. Results for each community are summarized in Table 1 from the study to compare the type of integration used, and what aspects of mainstreaming were achieved.

Table 1

Comparison of integration, approach and effectiveness of mainstreaming

Notes: Rauken et al. (2015) p. 415.

Direct quotes from the study participants provide context about their attitudes regarding the need and urgency for climate adaptation and how the flow of information may or may not be working. Interestingly the municipality that used vertical integration achieved the most climate change adaptation measures implemented but only in specific departments directly impacted by climate change. They did not intend to go beyond this action to have a cross-sectoral comprehensive climate change policy. The two larger municipalities in the study had more political focus on climate adaptation. This empowered the communities to use cross-sectoral groups and horizontal integration, resulting in steps towards comprehensiveness, aggregation, and consistency. Interestingly the community that used vertical integration had little political attention as there was a climate skeptic at the top leadership level.

The results also showed that the more resources invested, the more attention was paid, resulting in a higher level of comprehensiveness. Of interest, Rauken et al. (2015) surmise that a vertical integration approach could be helpful if there is a lack of political support or resources to achieve comprehensive mainstreaming as a first step to getting critical adaptation measures in place. However, the legitimacy created through the effort to attain cross-sector involvement may provide more action in the long run.

Article 3 – Summary of Mainstreaming Climate Change Adaptation into Planning and Development: A Case Study in Northern Ireland

Mainstreaming Climate Change Adaptation into Planning and Development: A Case Study in Northern Ireland provides an inside look at mainstreaming in action. Authors Burns et al. (2022) use five key factors to assess mainstreaming implementation. The factors were identified by the World Resources Institute (Mogelaard et al., 2018, as cited in Burns et al., 2022) and are the following: “(1) strong policy frameworks; (2) sustained and persistent leadership; (3) coordination mechanisms across sectors and between government departments; (4) information and tools; and (5) supportive financial processes” (p 130). Of equal interest to the assessment is how a small team successfully championed climate adaptation planning from within the city and district council. They were able to scale up to a dedicated task force encompassing all service areas after their recommendations received support and funding. Although there was no legislative requirement for the city to mainstream climate adaptation, the European Union provided funding and staffing resources to facilitate the process. Recent flooding events increased the public concern regarding climate change and brought to light that managing the risks is a moral obligation of local governments. There is also a recognition of the cross-dependencies within the region and the need for those sectors to adapt. This background information is of value as it provides the context and the organizational structures that facilitate mainstreaming at the local level.

This case study provides a detailed step-by-step process for the development and approval of the communities Climate Change Adaptation Plan. The overview of the five steps and the summary of each step’s actions shows mainstreaming was used during steps three and four. Step three involved one-to-one meetings and workshops that led to the strategic direction and agreed-upon priorities for the plan. Step four was the next phase of development and approval by a committee of elected officials via a consultation process with all directorates. A visual of the process of cross-cutting actions and the integration of the city and district’s functions is provided in Figure 1 from the study and demonstrates the effectiveness of mainstreaming and integration into policies.

Figure 1

Thematic priorities of the climate adaptation plan

Note: From Burns et al. (2022) p. 140. Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/)

For example, they decided to screen all existing and emerging policies and all committee reports to ensure services are climate resilient. The other steps provide the groundwork for steps three and four, including adding climate change to the risk register and working with the finance department to identify budget requirements for adaptation work. The overview provided in Table 1 summarizes the actions taken for each step.

Table 1

Overview of action steps to mainstream climate adaptation plan

Note: From Burns et al. (2022) p. 139. Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/)

Reflecting on the lessons learned, Burns et al. (2022) acknowledge the significant amount of engagement and communication of risks necessary to garner the support of colleagues and, therefore, the challenge of using mainstreaming for integrating climate change adaptation within local governments.

References

Burns, C., Flood, S., O’Dwyer, B. (2022). Mainstreaming Climate Change Adaptation into Planning and Development: A Case Study in Northern Ireland. In: S. Flood, Y. Jerez Columbié, M. Le Tissier & B. O’Dwyer (Eds.), Creating Resilient Futures. (pp. 129-147) Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-80791-7_7

Cox, R., Niederer, S., Forssman, V., Sikorski, L. (2021). Climate Adaptation Competency Framework, The Resilience by Design Lab: Adaptation Learning Network. https://adaptationlearningnetwork.com/sites/weadapt.org/files/aln-competencyframework_2021_1.pdf

Rauken, T., Mydske, P.K., Winsvold, M. (2015). Mainstreaming climate change adaptation at the local level. Local Environment, 20(4), 408-423. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13549839.2014.880412

Runhaar, H., Wilk, B., Persson, A., Uittenbroek, C., & Wamsler, C. (2017). Mainstreaming climate adaptation: taking stock of “what works” from empirical research worldwide. Regional Environmental Change, 18, 1201-1210. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10113-017-1259-5

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Climate Communications Content Backed by Research

Leave a Comment / Academic Writing, CALS 502 / Deanna

Overview

The forward-looking narrative Imaging my Green Neighbourhood Twenty Years From Now (Fourt, 2022) envisioned what changes might occur and the health and well-being benefits that might be derived if recent government climate actions are implemented and acted on. The recently approved (July 4, 2022) City of Nanaimo Plan intended to guide the city’s development for the next 24 years was the primary focus of the narrative. The plan’s vision is a resilient green Nanaimo wrapping around and encircling all four of the other goals in the plan (City of Nanaimo, 2022). Community health and well-being are one of the goals a green Nanaimo encircles (City of Nanaimo, 2022). The remaining three goals are equitable access and mobility, reconciliation and inclusion, and a thriving, resilient economy that contributes to health and well-being (Hunter et al., 2019). As a citizen, I wondered what those goals would mean for my neighbourhood. I used the forward-looking narrative to shift from abstract technical concepts outlined in the plan to explore how solutions might be applied and the benefits that would be achieved. Reading the narrative may help citizens envision how the plan could benefit them and their neighbourhood (Hinyard & Kreuter, 2007; Moezzi et al., 2017). Knowing how they will directly benefit may help generate continued support for the long-range plan (Maibach et al., 2011).

I developed the Nanaimo Citizens Climate Action Story Gallery as an alternative to the forward-looking narrative and a different means for people to understand some of the solutions available to them. The story gallery includes short narratives and photos of real people taking action to implement climate change solutions in the community. Research shows that images affect the viewer differently than a narrative and may help readers and viewers connect with the actions described in the narrative (Altinay, 2017). Using images to support the climate action stories is intended to elicit positive emotions, deepen knowledge and provide easy-to-understand pathways for action (Hinyard & Kreuter, 2007; Schroth et al., 2014; Wang et al., 2018). It also assists people with different cognitive abilities in understanding concepts (Altinay, 2017; Merkle, 2019; O’Neill, 2019). Calling this a story gallery means it can become a place to collect and share photo stories of other people’s actions on an ongoing basis.

Access to the narrative and solutions image gallery is enhanced for those with visual impairment and cognitive challenges. For example, images have alt-text for those that use assistive technology for reading. A Practical Handbook on Accessible Graphic Design recommends that “describing the communication intent” (Rallo et al. 2019, p. 38) rather than a literal description is more informative for those accessing alt-text. The handbook also recommends brevity for the alt-text. Readability is enhanced by using an optimal typeface and font size. Spacing, line length, alignment and formatting were also considered. Typefaces such as Calibri or Helvetica must be at a minimum point size of 12 points or larger to enhance legibility. For the visually impaired, the handbook recommends line spacing be “125 to 150% of the font size” (Rallo et al. 2019, p. 29). The space between paragraphs should be 50% greater than that between the lines without indenting. Keeping line length between 45 to 90 characters ensures readability. Too short of a line increases cognitive load, and too long of a line is difficult for those with neck mobility issues. Hyphenated words will be avoided as this can cause confusion for screen readers and increase cognitive load. Further, the text will be kept to smaller, manageable blocks to avoid overwhelming the reader. Headings and anchors will be used to facilitate easy navigation within the piece.

The following is a link to the Nanaimo Citizens Climate Action Story Gallery

References

Altinay, Z. (2017). Visual Communication of Climate Change: Local Framing and Place Attachment. Coastal Management, 45(4), 293–309. https://doi.org/10.1080/08920753.2017.1327344

Arthurs-Brennan, M. (2022, January 14). 15 benefits of cycling: Why cycling is great for fitness, legs and mind. Cyclingweekly.Com. https://www.cyclingweekly.com/news/latest-news/benefits-of-cycling-334144

BC Care Providers Association (2022, July 22). Ensure safety of seniors ahead of the upcoming heat in B.C. https://bccare.ca/2022/07/ensure-safety-of-seniors-ahead-of-the-upcoming-heat-in-b-c/

City of Nanaimo (2022, May). City Plan – Nanaimo Reimagined, Executive Summary. https://www.nanaimo.ca/docs/projects/city-plan—executive-summary—2022.06.03.pdf

City of Nanaimo (2022, May). City Plan – Nanaimo Reimagined. https://pub-nanaimo.escribemeetings.com/FileStream.ashx?DocumentId=42277

Fourt, D. (2022). Imaging my Green Neighbourhood Twenty Years From Now [Student paper]. Royal Roads University.

Hinyard, L. J., & Kreuter, M. W. (2007). Using Narrative Communication as a Tool for Health Behavior Change: A Conceptual, Theoretical, and Empirical Overview. Health Education & Behavior, 34(5), 777–792. https://doi.org/10.1177/1090198106291963

Hunter, R. F., Cleland, C., Cleary, A., Droomers, M., Wheeler, B. W., Sinnett, D., Nieuwenhuijsen, M. J., & Braubach, M. (2019). Environmental, health, wellbeing, social and equity effects of urban green space interventions: A meta-narrative evidence synthesis. Environment International, 130, 104923. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2019.104923

Merkle, B. G. (2019). Writing Science: Best Practices for the Images that Accompany Your Writing. The Bulletin of the Ecological Society of America, 100(2), e01536. https://doi.org/10.1002/bes2.1536

Moezzi, M., Janda, K. B., & Rotmann, S. (2017). Using stories, narratives, and storytelling in energy and climate change research. Energy Research & Social Science, 31, 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.erss.2017.06.034

O’Neill, S. (2019). More than meets the eye: A longitudinal analysis of climate change imagery in the print media. Climatic Change, 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-019-02504-8

Rallo, A., Forest, E., Kuo, J., Boutillier, R., & Li, E. (2019). Access Ability 2: A Practical Handbook on Accessible Graphic Design, Revised + Supersized Second Edition. Association of Registered Graphic Designers. https://www.rgd.ca/database/files/library/RGD_AccessAbility2_Handbook_2019_06_01(1).pdf

Schroth, O., Angel, J., Sheppard, S., & Dulic, A. (2014). Visual Climate Change Communication: From Iconography to Locally Framed 3D Visualization. Environmental Communication, 8(4), 413–432. https://doi.org/10.1080/17524032.2014.906478

Tree Canada (n.d.). Calculate Your Carbon Emissions. https://treecanada.ca/carbon-calculator/

Wang, S., Corner, A., Chapman, D., & Markowitz, E. (2018). Public engagement with climate imagery in a changing digital landscape. WIREs Climate Change, 9(2), e509. https://doi.org/10.1002/wcc.509

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A New Green World Requires Right Relations

Leave a Comment / Academic Writing, CALS 501 / Deanna

The lush green growth represents a new green world, and the exposed bark's heart shape symbolizes right relations. — Photo D Fourt

What is climate action leadership and why does it matter?

As I reflect on this thought-provoking question, I realize that my understanding of climate action leadership has evolved after the two-week Learning Intensive for MACAL CALS 501 Leading Climate Action in Society. I came into the program thinking climate action leaders must strategically and persistently develop ways to inspire climate action, learn and evolve from setbacks and bring as many people along with them as possible. I also thought that the reason why it matters is heard regularly in the news and nicely summed up by Emanuel (2020) in Climate Science, Risk & Solutions as follows, “By the time the consequences of climate change become unequivocally clear, it will almost certainly be too late to do much about it. We must decide very soon” (p. 41). I decided a long time ago action was necessary, but now realize that climate action leadership needs to be more than convincing people to reduce emissions and increase resiliency. Why it matters is more nuanced and requires looking for the root cause of climate change. Therefore, to reflect on climate action leadership, I will be looking at colonization, decolonization, the role of white settlers and transdisciplinary thinking.

For many decades, scientists have been tracking Earth’s warming. The video Climate Emergency: Feedback Loops (Gray, 2022) describes the warming as human-caused, primarily from burning fossil fuels. Their solutions are straightforward: Humans need to “cut their emissions, stop deforestation and regreen the earth” (Gray, 2022, 10:30). Yet, achieving climate action has been incredibly difficult. The United Nations (UN) Secretary-General Antonio Guterres called the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Working Group III Climate Change 2022 Mitigation of Climate Change report “a file of shame” and accused “government and business leaders [of] saying one thing – but doing another” while their “investing in new fossil fuels infrastructure is moral and economic madness” (UN Press Release, 2022).

If anyone should be demonstrating climate action leadership, it should be our government and business leaders. They must know better than any the consequences of their actions.

In Thinking in Systems: A Primer, Meadows (2008) points out that governments might say they are interested in protecting the environment, but if they do not invest money and effort into environmental protection, environmental protection is not the government’s priority (p. 14). She also notes in Leverage Points: Places to Intervene in a System (1999) that world leaders look to economic growth to solve global problems, but that growth also has costs, including “environmental destruction” (p. 1). That economic growth, based on capitalism and colonialism, has created the climate crisis, is noted in the conclusion of the Assembly of First Nations’ National Climate Gathering Report (2020). The report points to the failure of current attempts to address climate change and links it to the “interrelationships between the three ’Cs’ – colonialism, capitalism, and carbon” (p. 20).

If our capitalistic system is stuck in a permanent-growth mode based on colonialism and this impedes our climate solutions, then is decolonization the basis of climate action?

Module 1 from Indigenous Knowledges and Perspectives on Climate Adaptation (Brooks et al., 2022) highlights that when we disregard Indigenous worldviews in climate mitigation or adaptation actions, we risk perpetuating the damaging effects of colonialism. David Isaac’s interview, recorded in the transcripts of Module 1, takes this notion further and observes that Indigenous worldviews can guide the Canadian public when tackling the climate crisis (Isaac, 2020, 00:00:10). So how can this insight be applied to climate action leadership? In their paper Decolonizing transformations through ‘right relations’, Gram-Hanssen et al. (2021) scrutinize their role as white settler researchers and provide insight on how they and others in similar situations can use “right relations” to decolonize their work. ”Right relations,” as described by the authors, is “an obligation to live up to the responsibilities involved when taking part in a relationship—be it to other humans, other species, the land or the climate” (p. 673). The paper frames climate change as a problem with modern humans’ relationship to the environment. Unlike Indigenous worldviews, the environment is treated as an externality and is damaged rather than sustained or regenerated. To counteract damage, the authors propose being in “right relations,” which is an ongoing process demonstrated by “respect, reciprocity and just actions” (p. 677).

Therefore, in my view, climate action leadership requires us to respect and emulate Indigenous worldviews by being in” right relations” through appropriate practices and processes.

In considering how we think, relate, and engage in climate action leadership, we can look to transdisciplinary leadership, as described in Transdisciplinarity: A Primer (Corman & Cox, 2020), for guidance. The primer describes transdisciplinarity as a way of being and working that requires an open mindset and a willingness to weave different understandings not constrained by typical boundaries into new knowledge to achieve better outcomes for everyone (pp. 6-7). This approach provides the opportunity or the framework to incorporate “right relations” and other world views. An example of how this might work is shown in the video The Transdisciplinary Approach, where the Michigan Technological University (2017) used transdisciplinary research to tackle complex problems such as climate change. The transdisciplinary team does everything together, from framing the question or problem to communicating the results (MTU, 2017, 1:14). For me, framing the question or problem with those impacted or having a stake in the process and outcome is an intriguing and respectful approach that may provide better results. Here is a future inquiry opportunity for me and a chance to further reflect on recent learnings and readings.

Climate action leadership needs to be based on ”right relations” to ensure that climate solutions are not perpetuating unintended harm or colonialism. A way to do this is to use transdisciplinarity processes, thinking and leadership and encourage others in this space to do the same. As a result, climate action leadership is necessarily an ongoing development process for the practitioner. Climate action leaders need to seek and work with methods, and ways of being that produce better outcomes for everyone. While the video Climate Emergency: Feedback Loops calls for a regreening of Earth as a climate solution (Gray, 2022, 10:30), humans also need to rethink their relationship with our planet, the plants, the animals and most importantly, with each other. Perhaps through ”right relations”, we can find the right balance for all beings now and in the future to thrive in a new green world.

References

Assembly of First Nations (2020, July 10). National Climate Gathering Report: Driving Change, Leading Solutions. https://www.afn.ca/wp-content/uploads/2021/04/Climate_Gathering_Report_ENG.pdf

Brooks, J., Gilpin, E., Cougler Blom, B., Cox, R., Lambert, K., & Forssman, B. (2022). Module 1: Historical Context of Indigenous Environmental Management. Indigenous Knowledges and Perspectives on Climate Adaptation. Resilience By Design Lab. https://pressbooks.bccampus.ca/indigadapt/

Corman, I., & Cox, R., (2020). Transdisciplinarity: A Primer. Written for the Masters’ in Climate Action Leadership, Royal Roads University. https://commons.royalroads.ca/macal/wp-content/uploads/sites/88/2021/04/MACAL_Transdisciplinary_Thinking03-31-21-3.pdf

Emanuel, K. (2020). How long can we wait to act? Chapter 9. In K. Emanuel Climate Science, Risk & Solutions. Massachusetts Institute of Technology. https://climateprimer.mit.edu/climate-science-risk-solutions.pdf

Gram-Hanssen, I., Schafenacker, N., & Bentz, J. (2021). Decolonizing transformations through ‘right relations’. Sustainability Science, 17, 673-685. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11625-021-00960-9

Gray, S. (Director). (2022). Climate Emergency: Feedback Loops, Moving Still Productions, Inc. [Online Film]. https://feedbackloopsclimate.com/introduction/

Isaac, D. (2022). Indigenous Worldview as guiding light in tackling climate crises. In Module 1, J. Brooks et al., Indigenous Knowledges and Perspectives on Climate Adaptation. Resilience By Design Lab. https://pressbooks.bccampus.ca/indigadapt/

Meadows, D. (1999). Leverage Points Places to Intervene in a System. Sustainability Institute. https://donellameadows.org/wp-content/userfiles/Leverage_Points.pdf

Meadows, D. (2008). Chapter 1 – The Basics. In D. Wright, (Ed.), Thinking in Systems: A Primer. (pp. 11-34) Chelsea Green Publishing Company. https://books.google.ca/books?id=CpbLAgAAQBAJ&lpg=PP1&pg=PA11#v=onepage&q&f=false

Michigan Technological University. (2017, July 28). The Transdisciplinary Approach [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=x5xGi9EFCSY

United Nations Secretary-General. (2022, April 04). Secretary-General Warns of Climate Emergency, Calling Intergovernmental Panel’s Report ‘a File of Shame’, While Saying Leaders ‘Are Lying’, Fueling Flames [Press release]. https://www.un.org/press/en/2022/sgsm21228.doc.htm

Working Group III Contribution to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. (2022). Climate Change 2022 Mitigation of Climate Change. https://report.ipcc.ch/ar6wg3/pdf/IPCC_AR6_WGIII_FinalDraft_FullReport.pdf

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